Alter ego a1 french book pdf free download

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Register to contact people from your country living in Germany just like you! Transformational leadership is related to the effectiveness of groups of salespersons e. As was the case with the relationship between transformational leadership and follower satisfaction, leader scores on the transforma- tional leadership scales of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire MLQ substantially correlated with measures of leader effectiveness mean rs equal to or greater than.

In both cases, contingent reward also strongly correlated with leader effectiveness, although not as great in magni- tude as the transformational components, whereas the other leader- ship styles in the Full Range of Leadership FRL model e.

As might be expected, the relationships between transformational leadership components and subjective measures of leader effective- ness are much stronger rs in the. Adapted with permission. Subjective Measures Objective Measures. Transformational Charisma Lowe, K.

Kroek, N. Sivasubramaniam, , Leadership Quarterly, 7 3 , pp. A more recent meta-analysis by Judge and Piccolo found similar results as previous meta-analyses, with both transformational leadership and contingent reward having strong positive relationships to follower job satisfaction, satisfaction with the leader, and follower motivation corrected correlations ranging from. As expected, rela- tionships between management-by-exception and laissez-faire leader- ship and follower satisfaction and performance ranged from slightly positive to negative.

Importantly, and consistent with previous results, transformational leadership had an augmentation effect when control- ling for the effects of transactional leadership.

In summary, it appears that transformational leadership positively affects performance, regardless of whether performance is conceptu- alized as what others in the unit or organization i.

The critical element is to understand the process of how transformational leaders affect fol- lower and unit performance. Shamir et al. The resulting performance is beyond what would be motivated by other forms of leadership, such as purely transactional behavior. Broken down, this theory suggests several me- diators affecting the relationship between transformational leadership and exceptional performance. Third, shared or aligned goals and values are key to motivating follower performance.

Finally, the transformational leader empowers followers to perform beyond expectations. It may very well be the case that transformational leadership not only increases the performance of individuals and groups but also may work to lessen the impact of counterproductive work behaviors, presumably because transformational leaders are able to get followers committed to collec- tive goals, rather than just to their own personal goals.

In another study, transformational leadership had a positive impact on the sense of work group potency i. Aligned Goals and Values. In a study of workers in a disaster relief organization, transformational leadership as measured by the MLQ was related to the alignment of leader and follower values Krishnan, Barling et al.

We have already seen that transformational leadership is related to follower commitment and job satisfaction and that it is partially medi- ated by leader fairness and trust in the leader. As Shamir et al. In a straightforward experiment designed to test this hypothesis, Jung and Avolio had groups of students work on a brainstorming task. Groups were assigned a confederate leader, who was either trained to display a transformational or a transactional leadership style.

Objective measures of quantity and quality of task output were also obtained. The results clearly supported the positive relationships between transforma- tional leadership and trust and value congruence. However, trust and value congruence only partially mediated the relationship between transformational leadership and performance, suggesting that other mediators exist. Hoyt and Blascovich found that transactional leaders elicited greater quantitative performance, whereas transformational leaders elicited greater qualitative performance.

They suggest that trust medi- ated the relationship between transformational leadership and quality of work. Rather than focusing on performance only in quantitative terms, transformational leadership should also have a positive impact on the quality of follower and group performance. Moreover, groups with transformational leaders reported higher levels of perceived per- formance, extra effort, and satisfaction.

Jung found that trans- formational leaders promote higher levels of creativity, as measured by the divergent thinking of group members, than did transactional leaders. Research by Jung, Chow, and Wu suggests how transforma- tional leadership might affect creativity. In later chapters, we detail how transformational leadership contrib- utes to coping with stress and crisis conditions, how transformational leaders help initiate and implement change processes, and how trans- formational leaders develop the leadership capacity of followers.

Par- adoxically, highly committed employees, for instance, those who take their work home with them at night and are highly ego involved in their work, may experience more stress than those who are indiffer- ent to their work. Thus, another indicator of the effectiveness of transformational leadership involves reducing feelings of stress as well as providing the tools to help followers cope with stress and crisis.

Indeed, as we show in the next chapter, transactional leader- ship increases feelings of stress, whereas transformational leadership decreases such feelings. Transformational Leadership and Implementing Change. Trans- formational leadership, particularly its charismatic elements, has been associated with producing change in groups and organizations. Unfortunately, there has been relatively little research directly examin- ing how transformational leadership affects change in organizations.

However, a recent study by Waldman, Javidan, and Varella found that CEO charisma and intellectual stimulation as measured by the MLQ were related to strategic organizational change and to company performance. We explore how transformational leadership affects an organization in chapters 7 and 9.

Transformational Leadership and Developing Leaders. A core element of transformational leadership is the development of follow- ers to enhance their capabilities and their capacity to lead.

Thus, transformational leaders likely serve as mentors, and mentors likely exhibit various degrees of transformational leadership behavior. Sosik et al. Sosik and Godshalk found that transformational leaders were more likely than nontransformational leaders to provide good mentoring e.

In addition, transformational leadership tended to have a stress-buffering effect on followers such that proteges of transforma- tional leaders reported less job-related stress. We explore more fully the relationship between transformational leadership and stress and crisis in the next chapter. A common criticism and misconception of transformational leader- ship is that it is all smoke and mirrors— a feel-good type of leadership that leads to happy followers but does not affect group performance.

However, it is clear that transformational leadership does indeed affect group performance, regardless of whether performance is measured subjectively or by more objective means. Moreover, transformational leadership does lead to performance beyond expectations in relation to transactional leadership.

The terrorist attack of September 11, , on the World Trade Cen- ter was one of the greatest modern crises to strike any U. It offered the opportunity for leaders to demonstrate transformational leadership under a time of serious emergency and stress.

In the days and weeks that followed, he would conduct several press conferences in the vicinity of the destroyed towers, attend many funerals and memorial services, and maintain what seemed like a ubiquitous presence in the city.

His visibility, combined with his decisiveness, candor, and compassion, lifted the spirits of all New York- ers— indeed, of all Americans.

Argenti, , p. Leaders can help their groups cope with stress in many ways. For instance, individuals, groups, or organizations may be paralyzed into inertia and disbelief when faced with a crisis in which they are seri- ously threatened. Such was the case on September 11, Transformational leaders may also do better in a crisis because, unlike directive or transactional leaders who focus on short-term re- sults and who may be prone to hasty, poorly thought-out decisions, transformational leaders are more likely to delay premature choices among options.

Through extensive discussion, the team decided not to follow other airlines in cutting back personnel and services, instead taking a long-term strategy of continuing to offer reliable service, which paid off for the airline. When action is called for, the transformational leader in a crisis can use inspirational appeals to arouse and motivate followers.

FDR needed to motivate support for U. When their followers are engaged in defensive avoidance, trans- formational leaders bring them back to reality. Panic can be reduced or avoided by inspirational leadership that points the way to safety.

In general, groups with leaders, transactional or transformational, are likely to cope better with stress than those without such leadership.

When groups and organizations are under stress, more directiveness from leaders is expected and desired. Decision making is likely to suffer unless effective leadership is provided that can help foster the quality of the decision. In the acute stress of emergencies and disasters, panic is prevented by leaders who encourage advanced preparation and well-trained, well-organized, credible systems.

In situations of chronic stress, transformational and charismatic leadership helps followers deal with the stress and its effects. Chronic stress is better handled when leaders transform personal concerns into efforts to achieve group goals. Stressful environments contain much uncertainty, volatility, and turbulence. Business and start-up ventures, mergers, acquisitions and divestitures, economic downturns, new competitive challenges, erosion of market share, and rapid technology changes can all create stresses and dislocations.

Combat often involves surprise, threat, and unforeseen contingencies. In addition, and as seen in recent years, ethical scan- dals can shake the very foundations of well-established entities. Under crisis-ridden or uncertain conditions, transactional leaders, who are reactive and depend on old rules and regulations to maintain and control the system, are unlikely to help followers cope with the sit- uation.

More effective are transformational leaders, who are proactive, break with tradition, provide innovative solutions, and institutionalize new arrangements Bass, b. When followers are under stress, speedy decisions are likely to be readily accepted Janis, The speed of the decisions may result in inadequate solutions to the stressful circumstances.

The decisions are likely to lack the in- clusion of careful structuring and support. Generally, rapid decision making is sought in crisis and disasters and is effective if the decisions are not hastily made at the last minute but are based on advanced warning, preparation, and organization, along with commitment and support.

This is in contrast to more intelligent but less experienced leaders, who may waste time trying to analyze the situa- tion and come up with the perfect solution Zaccaro, In emergencies when danger threatens, followers want to be told what to do—and in a hurry. They believe that they have no time to consider alternatives. Rapid, decisive leadership is demanded. Leaders who fail to make decisions quickly are judged as inadequate. Leaders speed up their decision making as a consequence of stress and crises.

Failure to do so leads to their rejection as leaders. Acceptance of their rapid, arbitrary decisions without consultation, negotiation, or partici- pation is also increased. A leader who can react quickly in emergencies is judged as better by followers than one who cannot Korten, Particularly at lower levels in the military organization, emphasized is the rapidity of response to orders from higher authority.

Where rapid decisions are called for, executives are likely to man- age-by-exception. The more organizations wish to be prepared for emergency action, the more the executives are likely to stress a high degree of structure, attention to orders, and active management-by- exception by their supervisors.

But this kind of arbitrary decision making may prove costly. For example, in three research and development organizations, stress was caused by a reduction in available research funds. This resulted in strong internal pressures for controls on spending and top manage- ment control and direction. Hasty decision making is likely to be promoted, possibly providing instant or temporary relief, but may fail to deal with the root causes of the stress.

Such leadership may be counterproductive in the long run. Indeed, leadership may contribute to stress. Personalized, self-aggran- dizing, charismatic leaders can cause more stress among their follow- ers, for instance, when they excite a mob to take hasty actions.

Pseu- dotransformational political leaders manufacture crises to enhance their own power, to divert public attention from real problems, and to gain public support for their own arbitrary actions. Thus, leader- ship may cause rather than ameliorate stressful conditions that result in emotionally driven actions by the followers and poorer long-term outcomes.

And the leaders who emerge are likely to be different from those in unstressed situations. Transactional leaders, particularly those who rely on management- by-exception, who emphasize reactive corrective actions, may actually increase stress in their followers; transformational leaders who empha- size charismatic, inspirational, and individualized consideration and proactive vigilant solutions are likely to reduce the feelings of stress in their followers.

As noted in chapter 3, transformational leadership raises the self-esteem of followers. In support of this idea, Atwater, Camobreco, Dionne, Avolio, and Lau found that leader noncontingent punishment elicited negative emotional reactions from followers. Seltzer et al. Systolic and diastolic blood pressure increased in experimental subjects as compared to control subjects, as did galvanic skin responses. In similar experiments, production- oriented leadership caused feelings of hostility and anxiety about the experiments.

Abrasive leaders use their power to coerce their followers. This causes stress. For many subordinates, immediate supervisors may be the most stressful aspect of the work situation e. Tyrannical bosses are frequently mentioned as a main source of stress on the job. In addition, the leaders themselves may be personally more prone to stress. Sanders and Malkis found that Type A stress-prone personalities were nominated more often as leaders than Type Bs.

However, the fewer Type Bs who were chosen as leaders tended to be more effective as individuals in the assigned task than were the Type A leaders. As already noted, often it is the leaders themselves who contrive the threats, crises, and ambiguities that lead to stress. Defensive avoidance is promoted. Blame is directed elsewhere.

Even when pseudotransformational business and government lead- ers appear to consult and share decisions with subordinates in times of crises Berkowitz, , they may often do so because they seek support from their subordinates regarding the wisdom of the solutions the leaders have already chosen. Even worse, these leaders may appear to share the decision in an effort to spread the blame from themselves to others should the decision go awry.

Crises call for special leadership talents. When uncertain action is required without time pressure, the situation may be viewed as a problem rather than a crisis. When required actions and outcomes are known but when time pressure exists, organizations engage standard, albeit critical, procedures or routines.

In such organizational crises, Krackhardt and Stern emphasized the importance of adaptation and cooperation that subsequently require trust and friendly relationships. Such trust can be created by charismatic and inspirational leaders, and such relationships can be developed by individually considerate leaders. This suggests that the organization is in better shape to handle crises, uncertainty, and threats of required change if headed by transformational leaders.

Such times increase the feelings among people of helplessness, agitation, anxiety, and frustra- tion. Those under stress and seeking its relief readily respond zealously to leaders who strengthen their faith in that relief. By calling for a transcendental goal or innovative mission to relieve the stress, charis- matic leaders induce renewal and mobilize collective efforts to face the stress or crisis.

Without such collective perception of crisis or stress, charismatic leadership is less likely to appear. In that case, there is no need for an exceptional leader with radical solutions. Personally seeking to shake up the status quo, charismatic leaders, particularly the pseudotrans- formational personalized ones, identify and exaggerate existing short- comings in the situation and the grievances of followers.

Some of the stress and sense of crisis of charismatic leaders, particu- larly those at the head of organizations, may be felt by themselves as they manufacture it for their followers. Other stresses may be felt by those at the top. There is the well-known experience of loneliness of command. Their own dependency needs cannot be met. Yet they also are envied for their power and position, which can be a cause of anxiety for them. They fear losing their power and position because of envy, and a dysfunc- tional consequence is that they may fear being too innovative or too successful.

A cause of both depression and possible adventurism for those who are at the top is the feeling that there is nothing else to strive for Kets de Vries, Janis and Mann argued that the completely rational approach to an authentic threat requires vigilant reponses—a full examination of objectives, of values, and of alternative course of action.

Costs and risks of various alternatives should be weighed. Careful development, implementa- tion, and contingency planning are also part of the vigilant response to threat. Yet such vigilance—thorough search, appraisal, and contingency planning—is short-circuited by the emotional arousal of the side-effects of the impending threat observed in the irrational reactions to crises. Whether formal or informal, leadership makes a difference in whether followers act ratio- nally or irrationally in coping with stress and crisis conditions.

The direct removal of the threats and obstacles that are the source of stress may be facilitated by sup- portive individually considerate informal leadership. On the other hand, pseudotransformational leaders whose goal is to use a crisis to seize greater power may increase the stress and increase anxieties.

The authentic transformational leader seeks to reduce these anxieties by providing supportive, individually considerate leadership that results in an increasing sense of security. A panic situation was simulated with Japanese undergraduates in 6-person groups.

Aggression was lowest, and escaping occurred most often when leaders focused both on performance planning and on maintenance of relationships the PM condition , rather than when they focused only on performance planning or maintenance of relationships or when they focused on neither Misumi, In an experimental study of the panic condition, when too many people try to escape through the same door, the stressed group pre- ferred a strong, nonelected leader.

Without the stress, a weaker elected leader was acceptable Klein, Transactional structuring combined with transformational competence and consideration appear required for effective leadership under panic conditions. This is seen again when community disasters occur. At the national, state, and community levels, effective leadership promotes the development of credible warning systems and prepara- tions long before disasters actually strike.

The absence of such effective leadership is marked by maladaptive defensiveness by the public and exacerbation of panic reactions Harman, Needed at the orga- nizational level are technical and behavioral preparations for crises. Weinberg reviewed 30 cases of how groups dealt with earthquakes, blizzards, accidents, and hurricanes.

Breakdown occurred when there was laissez-faire leader- ship. Effective leadership provided the needed vision and support of individualized consideration and the structure and preparations of transactional leadership. Also, Giuliani recognized that the public needed to be completely informed via televi- sion and radio that the government was in charge of the situation. Such structure and preparedness was previously seen in the readiness and the strong chain of command found in tests of the Lawrence—Douglas County, Kansas emergency preparedness system.

The community was well prepared for disasters because resources were well organized and staff was highly trained Watson, They are the critical human resources whose effective use is paramount in a disaster or crisis Kartez, The leadership of these resources at the time of the crisis determines the effectiveness of the or- ganized response to disaster.

Most effective is when the organizations maintain their own identity and do not depend on outside volunteer help. Least effective is when only an amorphous organizational struc- ture is in place. Already it was noted that the transformational leadership compo- nents of charisma, inspirational leadership, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration contribute to effective leadership under stress Bass, For instance, charismatic transformational leaders tend to keep their cool when faced with threats to their lives.

They were not easily frightened or disconcerted. They remained calm, maintained their sense of humor, and were not thrown off balance in the face of danger or crisis Willner, Combat he- roes tend to come from the same mold.

When 77 Israeli medal winners in the Yom Kippur War were contrasted with ordinary soldiers, the medal winners exhibited more emotional stability. They also showed aspects of transformational leadership: perseverance under stress, de- cisiveness, and devotion to duty Gal, In combat, visible inspirational leadership may make the difference between complete victory and overwhelming defeat. A twitch of emotion may change an intact command into an army in rout Keegan, A vis- ible transformational leader can make the difference between a rout or a rally.

Again, Steiner and Neuman noted that following the war, Israeli soldiers suffering psychiatric breakdown lacked trust in their leadership and did not feel they belonged to their combat units.

Their self-esteem for their military performance was low. Clearly, transformational leadership was missing for them. In the s the CEO of Silicon Graphics illustrated the importance of a transformational leader in stressful, crisis, and chaotic conditions.

Silicon Graphics was one of the fastest growing computer companies in the United States, in an industry and age in which international competition was fast and ferocious. The CEO created within the or- ganization a relaxed, individually considerate, corporate atmosphere, where people were allowed to dress casually and have offbeat fun. He maintained a steady low-key personality, while intellectually stimulat- ing employees to think creatively.

Trust was emphasized as a way to make it possible to thrive on chaos. Silicon Graphics survived these very turbulent times and continues to be a strong company in a vola- tile business environment. The leader points to the inability of one party to get along without the as- sistance of the other. Yet the freedom of action of each party is main- tained. Ways are sought to increase the trust of the parties in their guarantee to keep the agreement.

Both parties are encouraged to avoid and to overcome rigid positions. This may also be true when un- popular actions such as cost-cutting are needed and cooperation from the parties is not being sought. For the transformational leader, such assertiveness may be required when superordinate organizational in- terests take precedence.

A transactional leader searches for expedient compromises that are immediately rewarding, are temporary settlements, and avoid disruptions. In such circumstances, paradoxically, the more intelligent leaders are less intellectually stimulating, as evidenced in this research by the lack of creativity of the group.

There is much babbling by the leaders and the group members—much more talk and many fewer ideas generated under such stressful conditions. Coping With Mergers and Acquisitions. When one organization is acquired by another in a merger, in general, the employees in the ac- quired company may be disturbed by the loss of identity and purpose. Anxiety, anger, depression, and helplessness may occur. As a result, survival in the merged organization may become an obsession.

Transformational leadership is needed to deal with the merging of the cultures of the acquired organization and the organiza- tion taking over, transcending both organizations. The future system of contingent reward needs to be clearly communicated along with feedback on how well it works. Support, consideration, and commit- ment are needed in helping to cope with the stress of the merger.

Marks and Mirvis argue that leadership of organizations un- dergoing mergers or acquisitions needs to possess insight, inspiration, and involvement— core elements of transformational leadership — to help members deal with the stress and uncertainty. Marks and Mirvis assert that, along with keeping employees informed, leaders must use inspirational appeals to make both the intellectual and emotional case for why people should accept the new, combined organization.

They also suggest empowering employees, consistent with notions of intel- lectual stimulation. Individually con- siderate leaders can help colleagues and subordinates work through their denials and anger.

A dissertation by Rose found that high-quality leader—member relationships led to lower incidence of burnout and health problems. After reviewing some of the literature, Burgess, Salas, Cannon- Bowers, and Hall formulated training guidelines for leaders of teams under stress. The strategies they presented included such transactional approaches as contingent rewarding and management- by-exception, double-checking of team member performance, focus on the task at hand, provision of feedback, monitoring of member performance, and troubleshooting to locate and correct errors.

He found that the faculty expects and calls for transformational leadership to deal with the pres- sure. He laid out the steps that might be taken and sought a faculty consensus. In the experiment, participants had to work on a routine coding task. Such effective coping with stress may come from changing the leaders Hamblin, ; Lanzetta, but more often results as a consequence of trans- formational leadership.

Transactional leadership can service the structure of relationships and readiness that is already in place, whereas transformational leader- ship adds to the structure and readiness by helping followers transcend their own immediate self-interests and by increasing their awareness of the larger issues.

The transformational leaders shift goals away from personal safety and security toward achievement, self-actualization, and the greater good. Communes did not survive if their members sought charismatic lead- ership that was not provided. Transactional leaders manage emergencies with structures that have already been set up by actively managing-by-exception. They can sup- ply solutions for immediate needs perceived by their followers. There is immediate satisfaction with such leadership but not necessarily long-term positive effectiveness in coping with the stressful condi- tions.

What may be necessary are transformational leaders who evoke higher level needs, such as for the common good, and who move fol- lowers into a fully vigilant search for long-term readiness. In con- trast, mild person—leader relationships were successful and effective in noncrisis situations.

As discussed earlier, inauthentic, pseudotransformational leaders are concerned with their own power, authority, and self-aggrandizement. They may be charismatic, inspirational, intellectually stimulating, and individually considerate, but it is for their own sake rather than for the sake of their followers. For instance, followers may feel personally inadequate because of the gap between their self-perceived images of what they are and what they ideally should and would like to be.

Stress is increased if they feel they cannot reduce the gap. Their own frustration may result in aggression and feelings of dependency on others. The truly transformational leader manifests individualized consid- eration and converts crises into developmental challenges. True transformational leadership does not replace the transactional leadership that has provided the neces- sary structure for readiness.

Rather, transformational leadership adds to transactional leadership Waldman et al. Patriot Act following the September 11, , terrorist attacks. However, to be effective in stressful situations, leaders must organize the efforts of their followers in ways that promote vigilance, thorough search, thorough appraisal, and contingency planning to avoid defective coping with threat.

Quick and easy decision making can be avoided by forming a decision-making group with members who differ in background and opinion Janis, To be effective in crisis conditions, leaders must be transforma- tional—able to rise above what their followers see as their immedi- ate needs and appropriate reactions.

To be effective, leaders need to be truly transformational in identifying and publiciz- ing the inadequacy of defensive pseudosolutions. To be effective for hypervigilant followers in a state of panic, leaders need to be truly transformational in providing goals transcending self-interests. Planning Ahead. Effective political leaders prevent crises or their stressful effects by planning ahead Yarmolinsky, Effective transactional leaders practice active management-by-exception by set- ting up early warning mechanisms to avoid surprises produced in last- minute, hasty, ill-conceived behavior.

Potential crises are recognized rationally without emotional upset. Appropriate searches for informa- tion can be instituted without hasty defensiveness. In this sense, the leadership takes on an important teaching function Yarmo- linsky, By anticipating potential crises, by preparing with active management-by-exception in advance for them, and by long-range, proactive, envisioning transformational leadership, leaders are more effective than if they only engage in dealing with immediate problems Katz, Direct survey evidence of the effects of transactional and transforma- tional leadership were obtained by Seltzer et al.

The MBAs indicated how often they experienced headaches, fatigue, irritability, loss of appetite, insomnia, and inability to relax. Table 5. As seen in Table 5.

Contingent reward also helped reduce burnout -. They also found that if the other factors were held constant through multiple regression analysis, reported stress and burnout were less if one worked under a charismatic and individually considerate leader. However, stress and burnout were somewhat higher if the MBAs worked at their full-time job under an intellectually stimulating leader.

Transformational Charisma -. Seltzer, R. Numerof, and B. Copyright by Pennsylva- nia State University at Harrisburg. Overall, transformational leadership and contingent rewarding by leaders were effective in reducing feelings of stress and burnout; management-by- exception accomplished the opposite.

Inspirational leaders inspire courage and stimulate enthusiasm. The cyanide lacing of Tylenol on store shelves struck Johnson and Johnson in He rejected glossing over the di- saster.

Rather, he converted the marketing disaster into an opportunity to gain credit for good citizenship. McCauley pointed to a number of both transformational and transactional ways leaders can convert a stressful situation into a chal- lenging one. The leader practices contingent rewarding by ensuring that there will be positive outcomes, and followers know what these are. Clear and attainable goals are set. Interim rewards for progress are given.

More generally, using intellectual stimulation, taxing condi- tions are converted into problems to be solved. Envisioning, enabling, and empowering followers provides greater tolerance for ambiguity, uncertainty, and working with new and unfamiliar conditions. Pines summarized the ways that transformational lead- ers can provide the support that makes for hardy followers, quality performance, and effective decision making, despite the presence of distressful conditions.

Leaders can present dramatic changes as chal- lenges, not as threats. Leaders can select followers who prefer a vigor- ous, fast-paced lifestyle and have the cognitive capacity and readiness to prepare themselves for coping adequately with the stress.

The intellectually stimulating leader can introduce the meta- phor of mountain climbers who do not look down the vertical cliff face and contemplate their dangerous exposure but instead concentrate on the holds and grips available immediately in front of them.

It is important for the leaders themselves to believe they face a challenging problem rather than a crisis. They are more open to ideas and suggestions from their subordinates.

More effective decisions are reached as a consequence. Thus, Tjosvold arranged an experi- ment for students acting as managers to lead other students acting as subordinates. The subordinates were actually confederates of the ex- perimenter. The managers were the actual subjects of the research and supposedly had to deal with an issue of job rotation.

They were told they were in a crisis condition, a challenging condition, or a situation of minor consequence. The managers who believed they were in a crisis were the most close-minded. They disagreed the most with their subordinates and were least interested in hearing more from them. Transformational leaders reduce stress among followers by creating a sense of identity with a social network of support.

Experienced stress is reduced as the follower is made to feel part of a larger entity. The insecurity of feeling isolated is replaced by the security of a sense of belonging. The loss of social ties through ostracism and isolation can be deadly among primitive peoples.

Pines listed numerous examples of effects found for people with the social support of close friends, relatives, and group associations in comparison to those with- out such social support. For instance, they had lower mortality rates than those without such social support. Again, children in Israeli kib- butzim were less anxious during prolonged bombardments than were Israeli urban children. The children were dealt with ineffectively by leadership that was authoritarian and did not provide support, control, or good communications Nelson, DELF junior A2.

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